"Coady had abused me at all levels; at the physical level, I was beaten directly and indirectly, by having to watch him beat others; at the verbal level, where shutting him out or talking back meant getting hit for not listening, or for showing defiance; at the intellectual level, by mocking my ambitions and interests; at the spiritual level, by playing God and not being held accountable for his actions; at the social level, by encouraging peer abuse and discouraging outside friends; at the life-skills level, in which I felt inadequate from not being taught any; and finally at the sexual level, the cruellest and most indelible level for (pre)adolescents."

- male victim who suffered years of abuse at a boarding school in Ottawa

Whenever the topic of sexual assault is discussed, many individuals automatically assume that the victim is female. This is due, in part, to the prevailing societal assumptions that men are inherently strong, aggressive, and assertive and thus, entirely capable of protecting themselves. In turn, these perceived "masculine" qualities have helped fuel the myth that a "real man" cannot be sexually victimized, and the implications can be devastating. Men who are sexually victimized often find themselves in a distressing predicament: they can either report the assault to the police and risk being stigmatized or ridiculed; or they can internalize the assault and risk their emotional and physical well-being. Unfortunately, the vast majority of men choose the latter.

Since most men fail to report their victimization, the statistics available on the prevalence of these crimes are strictly limited. This has lead many to falsely conclude that cases of male sexual victimization are extremely rare. Recent high profile cases, however, are beginning to bring the issue of male sexual victimization to the forefront. Male victims are now speaking out about the sexual abuse they suffered in orphanages, training schools, and as participants in organized sports. They have vowed to break the silence about this hidden crime, and are seeking justice throughout the courtrooms of Canada.

STATISTICS

Estimating the true prevalence of any kind of sexual abuse is an extremely difficult task, but this is particularly true in cases of male sexual victimization. The increasing number and quality of services available to female sexual assault victims has resulted in more women reporting their assaults to the police. As a result, the statistics on female sexual assault are now beginning to more accurately reflect the true prevalence of that crime. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said for the statistics on male sexual victimization.

There are two reasons that can explain the lack of statistics on male sexual victimization. First and foremost, most men do not report incidents of sexual victimization, the reasons for which will be discussed later in this paper. Since police reports are a key method for determining the prevalence of any given crime, failure to report this kind of victimization subsequently results in statistics which severely underestimate the problem. Second, the Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics does not distinguish between male and female sexual victimization. Thus, even if a man did report being sexually victimized to the police, it would fall under the broad and generic category of sexual assault.

Some private studies have been conducted in an attempt to understand the prevalence of this unspeakable crime. The studies, Boys as Victims and The Sexual Victimization of Boys: A Three Year Survey found that:

• one in three males are sexually victimized;
• males are most commonly victimized by other males;
• males are more likely to be victimized by someone outside the family;
• males of all ages were subject to sexual maltreatment (victims ranged in age from 6 to 43 years);
• males are more often subjected to serious physical abuse;
• gang rape is more common in cases involving male victims;
• males are more likely to endure multiple assaults from multiple assailants;
• males are more likely to be subjected to more than one form of abuse (47% reported oral-genital contact; 41% reported anal intercourse or attempted anal intercourse; 25% reported finger manipulation of the genitals or anus; 25% reported other types of abuse such as the insertion of a foreign body into the anus);
• males and females up to their early teens have almost an equal chance of being sexually assaulted; and
• males are less likely to report abuse by females because they do not consider such sexual interaction to be abusive.

SEXUAL ASSAULT LAWS

The study, Sexual Assault Legislation in Canada: An Evaluation, examined 71 cases of sexual assault prior to 1983. Of these cases, only two involved male victims. This was largely due to the fact that, prior to 1983, the laws governing sexual assault were unquestionably gender specific. Section 146 of the Criminal Code stated that "every male person who has sexual intercourse with a female person..." was guilty of a crime. Under this law then, men were exclusively viewed as the perpetrators of sexual assaults, but never as the victims. Thus, the strict interpretation of this wording ultimately excluded male victims from using this section.

The current laws recognize that persons of both genders can be victims of sexual assault. Although the Criminal Code does not explicitly define the term "sexual assault", it generally refers to an "assault committed in circumstances of a sexual nature such as to violate the sexual integrity of the victim." Three distinct levels of sexual assault are outlined in the Criminal Code, and are as follows:

1. Sexual Assault (s.271) - punishable by way of summary conviction or indictable offence and liable to a maximum term of 10 years imprisonment.

2. Sexual Assault with a Weapon, Threats to a Third Party or Causing Bodily
Harm (s.272) - punishable by way of indictable offence and liable to a maximum term of 14 years imprisonment.

3. Aggravated Sexual Assault (s.273) - this refers to a sexual assault during which an offender wounds, maims, disfigures or endangers the life of the victim.

Punishable by way of indictable offence and liable to a maximum term of life imprisonment.

As with any case of sexual assault, it is not uncommon for the perpetrator to claim that the sexual activity between him/herself and the male victim was consensual. For years, the Criminal Code did not define "consent", and thus the verdicts varied considerably in cases where consent was an issue. On June 23, 1992, Bill C-49 became law and for the first time, the term "consent" (as it relates to sexual assault) was defined as the "voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in question". Furthermore, the Criminal Code now outlines situations in which consent is not obtained. It should be noted, however, that the absence of consent is not strictly limited to the following situations. Section 273.1(2) states that consent is not obtained if:

• (a) the agreement is expressed by the words or conduct of a person other
•       than the complainant;
• (b) the complainant is incapable of consenting to the activity;
• (c) the accused induces the complainant to engage in the activity by abusing a position of trust, power or authority;
• (d) the complainant expresses, by words or conduct, a lack of agreement to engage in the activity; or
• (e) the complainant, having consented to engage in sexual activity, expresses, by words or conduct, a lack of agreement to continue to  
•       engage in the activity.

TYPES OF SEXUAL VICTIMIZATION

As with female victims, there are numerous ways in which males can be sexually victimized. Although not exhaustive, the following list contains some of the most common examples of male sexual victimization.

1. Witness: He may witness disturbing sexual activity on the part of another person. For example, an older person may expose himself/herself and masturbate in front of the victim.

2. Advances: He may have someone make unwanted sexual advances towards him which, although he is able to resist or escape, he finds frightening, disturbing or upsetting. For example, when hitchhiking someone offers him a ride and puts his hands on the victim's leg or touches his genitals.

3. Pressure: He may be pressured or manipulated into engaging in unwanted sexual activity. For example, the offender takes advantage of the victim through tricks, bribes, blackmail or by making him feel obligated.

4. Force: He may be forced to submit to unwanted sexual activity. For example, the offender threatens, or actually inflicts, injury on the victim or intimidates the victim with a weapon.

MYTHS SURROUNDING MALE SEXUAL ASSAULT

There are several myths surrounding male sexual victimization which can dramatically effect the course of action a male victim may take. Common myths include:

1. A real man cannot be raped - As stated earlier, the prevailing societal assumptions surrounding masculinity help reinforce the myth that men cannot be sexually victimized. Our society consistently views men as strong, competent and therefore perfectly capable of fending off unwanted sexual advances.

2. All male perpetrators are homosexual - Many individuals assume that homosexual males are responsible for the vast majority of male sexual assaults. In fact, only 7% of offenders in such cases are homosexual.

3. The victim's sexual preference will change as a result of the assault - Contrary to popular belief, a man's sexual orientation will not change as a result of being sexually victimized. Although some men may experience an erection and/or ejaculation during the assault, these responses are often involuntary reactions to extreme stress, and may be purely psychological.

4. Men inevitably enjoy sexual contact with others - Many in society see a clear distinction between the sexes when it comes to sexual activity. Whereas women are seen as vulnerable and sexually inexperienced, men are overwhelmingly viewed as being more curious and promiscuous. These assumptions lead many to falsely conclude that men enjoy any form of sexual behavior with others, whether consensual or not.

These myths can have serious detrimental effects, both physically and emotionally, on males who are sexually victimized. Aware that they may be stigmatized and/or ridiculed, many men repress their feelings and refrain from disclosing their victimization to family, friends and the police. These myths wrongfully induce a sense of shame and guilt for male victims, and the emotional toll is undeniably devastating. Unless societal assumptions surrounding male sexual assault are demystified, victims will continue to live behind a wall of silence for the rest of their lives.

EFFECTS OF SEXUAL VICTIMIZATION ON THE MALE VICTIM

Sexual victimization is an extremely traumatic experience for anyone, regardless of gender. As with any sexual assault victim, male victims often experience fear, anger and an overwhelming sense of loss of control over their bodies. He may also feel dirty, ashamed, guilty and/or embarrassed.

Like many female victims, males may also experience what has been termed "rape trauma syndrome" - a form of post-traumatic stress disorder which can last anywhere from a few years to a lifetime. The initial acute phase of this syndrome results in denial, disbelief and a sense of guilt, shame and humiliation. These feelings are intensified when those who should be supportive (family, friends) `blame the victim' or deny that the assault occurred.

In the second phase of the syndrome, a victim may experience vulnerability, anxiety, powerlessness, nightmares, or sleep disturbances. He may also find himself more dependent on others than before and may lack the ability to concentrate. Some men may also experience an overwhelming fear of intimacy and, in attempt to ease their pain, may turn to alcohol and drugs. If he fails to seek help, serious depression can develop which can sometimes lead to suicidal thoughts.

The immediate psychological effects for males who are sexually victimized, however, are somewhat different than those experienced by females. For heterosexual victims, the implication of homosexuality may be overwhelming. Males are likely to deny aspects of their assault, are more reluctant to disclose the genital aspect, and have seemingly more "controlled" emotional responses to their victimization. Moreover, they may feel particularly disturbed by the fact that they were unable to protect themselves.

Homosexual or bisexual victims suffer similar effects as a result of being sexually victimized, but there are some important differences. He may believe that, because of his nontraditional lifestyle, he is to blame for the assault. He may also withdraw completely from consensual sexual activity because he may experience flashbacks to the assault. Furthermore, he may fear that hospital and legal personnel will treat him with suspicion and disrespect because he is homosexual.

THE OFFENDER

The offenders in cases of male sexual assault are predominantly male. Although many assume that the majority of these offenders are homosexual, most say they are heterosexual when it comes to consensual sexual activity. Due to the secrecy surrounding male sexual assault, men who rape boys claim an average of three times as many victims as men who rape girls.

Most commonly, the offender is a non-family member, but not necessarily a stranger. Often times, the offender is in a position of trust or authority over the victim, such as a teacher, coach or babysitter. These offenders use their position to manipulate and take advantage of the victim through coercion, intimidation or threats. Others will offer rewards or bribes (beer, cigarettes, money) in exchange for sexual "favors". Consider the following cases in which the offenders abused their position of trust:

i) Robert Noyes: Noyes was an elementary school principal convicted in 1985 of sexually abusing 19 school children aged six to 15. Noyes was later declared a dangerous offender and sentenced to an indefinite prison term. He is considered a homosexual pedophile.

ii) Gary Walker: Walker took numerous jobs where he knew he would have access to young boys. He had been a police officer, church camp counselor, school bus driver, hockey coach and Boy Scout master. He admits to molesting over 200 young boys over a 36-year period. In some cases, his supervisors were aware of what he was doing, but in order to avoid a scandal, they chose to fire him rather than press criminal charges. Their failure to report Walker may have cost some children their lives - four boys he abused while coaching hockey committed suicide. Like Noyes, Walker was eventually declared a dangerous offender.

iii) Henry Coady: Coady was a prominent child psychologist who worked with "troubled" children at the University of Ottawa Child Study Centre. In 1991, Coady was found guilty of sexually assaulting numerous boys in his care. He was sentenced to two years imprisonment.

iv) Graham James: James, a former junior hockey coach, was recently convicted of sexually assaulting two of his former players. James abused the players more than 350 times between 1984 and 1994. James pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 3 years in prison and an additional 10 years probation. Police officials believe that James may have abused as many as 25 other players.

Although the offenders in these cases were all male, it is important to note that women make up a small percentage of those who sexually abuse boys. In fact, some experts believe that cases involving female offenders are not as infrequent as they may seem. Nicholas Groth, a prison psychologist, offers two reasons why the proportion of female offenders who sexually victimize boys may be underscored. First, women may mask sexually inappropriate contact with young boys through the guise of bathing or dressing the victim. Second, the sexual offences committed by female offenders are "more incestuous in nature." Thus, the male victim is often reluctant to report the incident if she is a parent or someone they are dependent on.

SERVICES AVAILABLE TO MALE VICTIMS

i) Sexual Assault Centres

In the past, very few services were available to males who were sexually victimized. Many sexual assault centres limited their clientele to woman and/or children, and thus male victims (particularly older teenagers and adults) were often turned away. Without any form of counselling or treatment available to them, these victims were forced to suffer in silence.

Recent high-profile cases involving male victims have helped demonstrate that sexual victimization is no longer strictly a women's issue, but rather a criminal one. Although some sexual assault centres continue to limit their services to female survivors, many have now opened their doors to male victims. Organizations in some Canadian cities even offer services exclusively to male sexual assault survivors.

Sexual assault centres offer a wide variety of services, some of which may include:

• a 24- hour crisis line
• crisis intervention counselling
• emotional support
• accompaniment to hospital, police or court
• support groups
• referrals to other community resources
• advocacy

ii) Victim/Witness Assistance Programs
Victim/Witness Assistance Programs are designed to provide support services to individuals who become involved in the court process as victims and/or witnesses of crime. These programs offer information, assistance and referrals to victims in order to make the Criminal Justice System a less intimidating and traumatic experience.

Like most sexual assault centres, Victim/Witness Assistance Programs offer a wide range of services, including court preparations and accompaniment. Many offer a Child Witness Support Program for young victims in an attempt to explain the court process and reduce the trauma and anxiety of having to participate in court proceedings. Victim/Witness Assistance Programs will also assist victims in preparing Victim Impact Statements.

RECOMMENDATIONS

i) Changing Societal Attitudes
Perhaps the only thing worse than this crime itself is society's response, or lack thereof, to its victims. Despite the recent attention given to male sexual victimization, many continue to believe in the myth that men cannot be sexually victimized. First and foremost, societal attitudes towards this crime must change dramatically. Only when this crime is demystified will men be able to seek and receive the support they so desperately deserve.

ii) Increased Training for Professionals
Unfortunately, professionals sometimes fail to identify the signs which might indicate that a male has been sexually victimized. This may be due to the seemingly "controlled" responses many sexually abused males exhibit following an assault. Men are less likely to outwardly express their feelings, which may be erroneously interpreted as a sign that nothing is wrong. Furthermore, it is not uncommon for males who seek medical attention to say that the injuries sustained were the result of a purely physical assault. Rarely, if ever, do they disclose the sexual aspect. Professionals must be trained to identify both the signs and responses that are common to males who have been sexually victimized. This includes hospital personnel, police, and those in the field of psychology.

iii) Expansion of Services
Finally, services directed exclusively towards male victims are needed. Although many sexual assault centres have now broadened their services to include male survivors, their clientele and staff are predominantly female. Since the immediate and lasting effects of sexual assault are somewhat different for males and females, this may prevent some men from seeking the assistance of sexual assault centres. Centres that are not only exclusive to males, but also staffed and operated by males, are greatly needed.

CONCLUSION

For years, male sexual victimization was masked by a curtain of silence. Recent cases have brought much needed attention to this crime and its victims, but they have provided just a glimpse into a much larger societal problem. Whereas our society has shown increasing support and sensitivity towards female sexual assault victims, male victims continue to be met with suspicion, ridicule and disbelief. Tragically, male victims will continue to suffer in silence until society sees male sexual assault for what it really is - a serious crime with devastating consequences.

Additional Sources

Centre for Sexually Assaulted Males (S.A.M.). Handout on Male Sexual Victimization. Toronto.

Bruce D. Forman (1982) "Reported Male Rape" in Victimology: An International Journal. Vol. 7, no.1.

Finkelhor, David. "Boys as Victims: Review of the Evidence" in Child Sexual Abuse New Theory and Research. (1984) The Free Press.

Kaufman et al (1980) "Male Rape Victims: Noninstitutionalized Assault" in American Journal of Psychiatry. Vol 137, no. 2.

Russell, Diana. "Women as Perpetrators: Review of the Evidence" in Child Sexual Abuse New Theory and Research. (1984) The Free Press.

Showers et al. The Sexual Victimization of Boys: A Three-Year Survey. Toronto: Centre for Sexually Abused Males.